:: wikimiki.org ::

Hennessy

Hennessy

Hennessy is a leading manufacturer of cognac, a type of distilled wine ('Brandy'). Hennessy was born when Irishman Richard Hennessy, who had been a mercenary for the French King, was compensated with land in the town of Cognac in France in 1765 and started a trading business, initially sending liquor back to Irish friends and relatives. His son, James Hennessy, expanded the business into the brandy production with which the town is now synonymous. The business was renamed James Hennessy and Co. - A name the company retains today. The company has been managed by successive generations of Hennessys (now it is eighth generation). Ownership has changed over the years though. In 1971 Hennessy merged with Moët et Chandon. In 1987 the drinks group then merged with fashion house Louis Vuitton to create what is now the world's largest luxury goods business: LVMH. Hennessy currently sells about three million cases of cognac each year. Recent innovations include trying to broaden the appeal of the drink beyond its traditional base of older drinkers, by introducing new products such as "Pure White" and "Fine de Cognac" and marketing them accordingly. Cocktail recipes have also been popularized, such as combining Hennessy with Red Bull energy drink to form Crunk juice, a cocktail popularized by Crunk-artists Lil Jon, the Eastside Boyz, the Ying Yang Twins

Hennessy products

- Hennessy Pure White
- Hennessy V.S. - Hennessy's enduring classic. V.S. stands for "Very Special"
- Hennessy V.S.O.P. (Very Superior Old Pale) Privilege
- Hennessy Fine dè Cognac
- Hennessy X.O.
- Hennessy Private Reserve - Premium brand. Rarely accessible on the open market.
- Hennessy Paradis Extra
- Hennessy Eau de Javel
- Richard Hennessy (Named after the creator of Hennesy)

External links

- [http://www.hennessy.com/ Hennessy Cognac Main Page] Category:Beverage companies Category:Brandies Category:Alcoholic beverages

Cognac (drink)

] Cognac (IPA: [k
- n'jæk] where
- is ɒ, oʊ, ɑ:, or ɔ:), named after the town of Cognac in France, is a kind of brandy, which must be produced in the region surrounding the town. The wine to be distilled must be made from Folle Blanche, Ugni Blanc or Colombard grapes. It must be distilled twice in copper pot stills and aged at least 2 1/2 years in oak barrels in order to be called "cognac". A related drink produced in another region is Armagnac.

Producing region and legal definitions

The region of Cognac, divided up into six growth areas, or crus (singular cru), covers the department of Charente-Maritime, a large part of the Charente and a few areas in Deux-Sèvres and the Dordogne. The six crus are, in order of decreasing appreciation of the Cognacs coming from them: Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Borderies, Fins Bois, Bons Bois, and Bois Ordinaires. A cognac made from just the first two of these crus (with at least 50 percent from Grande Champagne) is called "Fine Champagne" cognac, although no cognac has anything to do with the sparkling wine Champagne. ("Champagne" coming in both cases from old words alluding to agricultural fields.) If a brandy is produced that fails to meet any of the strict criteria set down by the "governing body" of cognac, the BNIC – Bureau National Interprofessionel du Cognac – it may not be called cognac, nor sold as such. Champagne
- It must be produced within the delimited region, from wine using certain grape varieties;
- It must be obtained through double distillation, in typical copper Charentais stills;
- It must age in oak barrels, which give it its color and part of its taste. Many of the cognac producers in the town allow visitors to taste their product; the bigger companies have guided tours.

Process of fabrication

Cognac is made from eaux-de-vie (literally, "water of life") produced by doubly distilling the white wines produced in any of the growth areas. The wine is a very dry, acidic, thin wine, not really suitable for drinking, but excellent for distillation. It may only be made from a strict list of grape varieties. Distillation takes place in traditionally shaped Charentais copper stills, the design and dimensions of which are also controlled. Two distillations must be carried out; the resulting eau-de-vie is a colourless spirit of about 70 percent alcohol. Cognac may not be sold to the public, or indeed called 'Cognac' until it has been aged for at least two years, counting from the end of the period of distillation (1st April following the year the grapes were harvested). During the aging, a large percentage of the alcohol (and water) in the eaux-de-vie evaporates through the porous oak barrels. This is termed locally the "part des anges", or angels' share. A black fungus, Torula compniacensis richon, thrives on the alcoholic vapours and normally grows on the walls of the aging cellars. The final product is diluted to 40 percent alcohol content (80 proof). The age of the cognac is shown as that of the youngest eau-de-vie used in the blend. The blend is usually of different ages and from different local areas. This blending, or marriage, of different eaux-de-vie is important to obtain a complexity of flavours absent from an eau-de-vie from a single distillery or vineyard. Each cognac house has a master taster (maître de chai) who is responsible for creating this delicate blend of spirits, so that the cognac produced by a company today will taste exactly the same as a cognac produced by that same company 50 years ago, or in 50 years' time. In this respect it may be seen to be similar to a blended whisky or non-vintage Champagne, which also rely on blending to achieve a consistent brand flavour.

Grades include

- VS (Very Special) or
- (three stars), where the youngest brandy is stored at least two years in cask.
- VSOP (Very Superior Old Pale), Réserve, where the youngest brandy is stored at least four years in cask.
- XO (Extra Old), Napoléon, Hors d'Age, where the youngest brandy is stored at least seven years in cask. Each cognac house also produces its own premium-level cognac. These include:
- Louis XIII by Rémy Martin is composed of more than 1,200 of the finest eaux-de-vie aged between 40 years and a century in very old Limousin oak barrels.
- Richard Hennessy - produced by Hennessy, 'Richard' is a blend of over 100 eaux-de-vie aged up to 200 years. It is sold in a Baccarrat crystal bottle and is named after the founder of the company.
- L'Esprit de Courvoisier - Courvoisier's leading cognac, presented in a hand-cut Lalique decanter, blended from eaux-de-vie up to 200 years old, and individually numbered.

Brands include

- Braastad
- Courvoisier
- Hennessy
- Martell
- Rémy Martin
- Hine
- Meukow

Companies

Cognac is mainly sold by trading houses. Some of them were founded centuries ago, and still rule the market today.
- [http://www.bache-gabrielsen.com Bache-Gabrielsen]
- [http://www.camus.fr Camus]
- [http://www.courvoisier.com Courvoisier] (Owned by Allied Domecq)
- [http://www.delamain-cognac.com Delamain]
- [http://www.hennessy.com Hennessy] (owned by LVMH)
- [http://www.hinecognac.com Hine]
- [http://www.martell.com Martell]
- [http://www.remy-martin.com Rémy Martin]
- [http://www.moyet-cognac-brandy.com Moyet]
- [http://www.otard.com Otard]
- [http://www.ferrand.com Pierre Ferrand]
- [http://www.cognacrenault.com/ Renault]
- [http://www.meukowcognac.com Meukow]

Literature

Lists of cognac literature can be found on the following pages
- [http://www.cognacnet.com/books/default.htm cognacnet.com-books-Page]
- [http://www.cognacguide.com/html/literatur.htm cognacguide.com-Literature page] very detailed list including cover pictures and short reviews (in German; [http://tools.search.yahoo.com/language/translation/translatedPage2.php?lp=de_en&urltext=http://www.cognacguide.com/html/literatur.htm translation by Yahoo])

External links

- [http://www.cognacnet.com cognacnet.com] Page by the American cognac-lover Mac A. Andrew, who died in 2001. Adopted by le-cognac.com, but not updated anymore. Regarding the content hardly surpassed by another page. Old layout, partly outdated.
- [http://www.le-cognac.com le-cognac.com] Page by Amélie and Chantal Firino-Martell with links to many cognac manufacturers and very informative. Also a shop with cognac.
- [http://www.cognac-world.com cognac-world.com] Page by Jean-Louis Née. Informative page with constantly updated news about everything related to cognac.
- [http://www.cognacguide.com/html/english.php cognacguide.com English page] Page by Ralph Wagner with information and forum for buying decision, purchase sources, literature and evaluation of Cognac and everthing related. Database of cognac prices and sources. (Home page in German; [http://tools.search.yahoo.com/language/translation/translatedPage2.php?lp=de_en&urltext=http://www.cognacguide.com/ translation by Yahoo])
- [http://www.bnic.fr/web_bnic_en/asp/accueil3.asp BNIC] Page of the Bureau National Interprofessionnel du Cognac, the authority guarding the manufacturing of all cognac. Here you can find a list of all cognac producers.
- http://www.cognacguide.ru Informational resource about cognac: how to drink cognac, history of cognac, how cognac is made, classification of cognacs, city Cognac.

Cognac-based drinks

- Grand Marnier
- List of cocktails
- Pineau des Charentes: A sweet aperitif, composed of eau-de-vie and grape must, made in the Charente region Category:Brandies ja:コニャック

Distilled

] Distillation is physical process for separating liquids through differences in their vapor pressures. Known since antiquity, the concentration of alcohol by the application of heat to a fermented liquid mixture is perhaps the oldest form of distillation (see distilled beverages). However, the technique is now widely used for a variety of liquids in the chemical industry and in the production of petroleum products, among other fields, despite the fact it is energy-consuming. The liquid mixture evaporates, such that the vapor has a composition determined by the chemical properties of the mixture. Distillation of a given component is possible, if the vapor has a higher proportion of the given component than the mixture. This is caused by the given component having a higher vapor pressure — and thus a lower boiling point — than the other components. However, interactions between the components of the mixture can create properties unique to the mixture. Such interactions can result in an azeotrope. At an azeotrope, the mixture contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95% at 78.2°C. By the nature of the process, it is theoretically impossible to completely purify the components using distillation, as distillation only tends to purity, never reaching it. This is comparable to dilution, which never reaches purity. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be used. The minimum in distillation is flash distillation, where either the temperature is rapidly increased or pressure reduced, and vapor and liquid fractions are thus obtained, which may be processed as such. The device used in distillation is referred to as a still and consists at a minimum of a reboiler (pot) in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapor is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid is collected. The equipment may affect separation by one of two main methods. Firstly the vapours given off by the heated mixture may consist of two liquids with significantly different boiling points. Thus, the vapour that is given off is in the vast majority of one or the other liquid, which after condensation and collection effects the separation. The second method (fractional distillation) is more effective at separating liquids with similar boiling points. This method relies upon a gradient of temperatures existing in the condenser stage of the equipment. Often in this technique, a vertical condenser, or column, is used. By extracting products that are liquid at different heights up the column, it is possible to extract liquids that have different boiling points. The greater the distance over which the temperature gradient in the condenser is applied leads to easier and more complete separation. It is also possible to separate fractions by cooling, using differences in their freezing points. In the American vernacular, this was known as 'jacking'. The most popular drink produced by this process during Colonial times was applejack, which was fermented apple cider that was then frozen in the winter months, and for which the liquid (containing the most alcohol) would be poured off to make applejack, with the result of approximately doubling the alcohol content of the resulting beverage. Many countries tax distilled alcohol, and preserve government income by legal restrictions on the use of a still. Distillation was developed into its modern form with the invention of the alembic by Arab-Yemeni (Iranian-born) alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan c. 800; he is also credited with the invention of numerous other chemical apparatus and processes that are still in use today. Chemists often use distillation in their work as a means of separating compounds or components. A distillation apparatus sometimes used by chemists is a rotary evaporator to distill (or evaporate) away solvent from a mixture.

External links

- [http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/AE/AE-117.html Alcohol distillation]
- [http://homedistiller.org Homedistiller.org - The mother of all home distilling information websites]
- [http://homedistiller.org/wiki/index.php Alcohol Wiki at Homedistiller.org]
- [http://www.brewhaus.com Brewhaus.com - Homebrewing & Distilling Supplies]
- [http://www.schnaps.co.at/index_en.htm Schnapps.co.at - Schnapps Distilling for Hobby]
- [http://www.moonshine-still.com/ Moonshine-still.com - Building a World Class Home Distillation Apparatus]
- [http://olliver.family.gen.nz/schnapps.htm Brewing Real Schnaps Without A Still]
- [http://www.oilganic.com/essential-oils-distillation.htm Essential and Fragrance Oils Distillation] Category:Alchemical processes ja:蒸留

Wine

:This article is about the beverage. See WINE (software) for an article about the software of the same name. Wine is an alcoholic beverage that is made by fermenting grapes or grape juice. Wine-like beverages can also be made from other fruits or from flowers, grains, and even honey, in which case, a qualifier has to be used; for example, "elderberry wine". The word wine and its equivalents in other languages are protected by law in many jurisdictions and therefore should always mean grape wine. This article discusses grape wine. For non-grape wines, see country wine for fruit and flower wine, barley wine which is similar to beer, sake for rice wine, baijiu for the Chinese spirits sometimes translated "wine," and mead for honey wine. honey

History

honey The word wine comes from the the Old English win, which derives from the Proto-Germanic
- winam which was an early borrowing from the Latin vinum (related to Greek οἶνος), which can mean either the "wine" or the "vine". The earliest known evidence of a fermented wine-like drink is from the Chinese village of Jiahu dated from 6000 to 7000 BC [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/51/17593]. The wine, found in 16 buried jars, contained millet, rice, beeswax (from honey) and either hawthorn fruit or wild grape. A 3,000 year old bronze jar has also been unearthed, still containing a similar liquid wine. Ancient pottery jars discovered at Hajji Firuz Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of present-day Iran, near the city of Urmia [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/NearEast/wine.shtml], indicate that grape wine was produced as far back as 5,500 BC. It is believed that the name of the Shiraz grape originates from the Persian town of the same name. This discovery is particularly significant, as Hajji Firuz Tepe was not a grape-growing area, the main crops being grains and the preferred drink of the time was beer. As ancient Babylon was located on the Silk Road from China to the Mediterranean, all indications suggest that wine was probably used as a commodity for trade. In ancient Egypt, wine played an important part in ceremonial life. Although wild grapes were never grown there, a thriving royal winemaking industry had been established in the Nile Delta. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt and Canaan during the Early Bronze Age, commencing from at least the Third Dynasty (2650 – 2575 BC), the beginning of the Old Kingdom period (2650 – 2152 BC). Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced at the deltaic vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five wines, all probably produced in the Delta, constitute a canonical set of provisions, or fixed "menu," for the afterlife. Christianity included wine in its rites where it takes the place of the blood of Jesus in the liturgies of Orthodox, Catholic and Anglican Christians. The advent of wine in Europe was the work of the Greeks who spread the art of grape-growing and winemaking in Ancient Greece and Roman times.

Wine-producing regions

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty north and between thirty and forty five degrees south of the Equator. The world's most southerly vineyards are in the South Island of New Zealand near the 45th parallel. The 13 largest export nations(2005 dates) – Italy, France, Spain, Australia, Chile, the United States of America, Germany, South Africa, Portugal, Moldova, Hungary, Croatia and Argentina. In the United States, California accounts for the largest share of wine producers, including Napa Valley, Sonoma Valley, Paso Robles, Santa Ynez and [http://www.mcganty.com/temecula04/overview.htm Temecula wineries]. The vineyards of Algeria used to produce many fine wines, especially during and immediately after the era of French colonization, but the resurgence of Islam among the populace since the 1970s has greatly reduced this industry. 1970s] The leaders in export volume by market share in 2003 were:
- France, 22%
- Italy, 20%
- Spain, 16%
- Australia, 8%
- Chile, 6%
- United States, 5%
- Portugal 4%
- Germany 4%.. See also: List of wine-producing regions

Wine grape varieties

List of wine-producing regions Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species, Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, or Zinfandel, for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; indeed, some of the world's most valued and expensive wines from the Bordeaux, Rioja or Tuscany regions, are a blend of several grape varieties of the same vintage. Wine can also be made from Vitis labrusca, from other species or from the hybrid of two species. Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis rupestris, Vitis rotundifolia and Vitis riparia are native North American grapes, usually used for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, but sometimes used for wine, eg. Concord wine. Although only rarely used and generally prohibited by law in traditional wine regions, hybrids are planted in substantial numbers in cool-climate viticultural areas. Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of grafting a North American vine's root to the stock of a vinifera varietal. This is common practice because North American grape species are immune to phylloxera. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the World except for Chile, which has yet to be exposed to the bug. The variety of the land, the local yeast cultures and the climate and conditions under which grapes are grown, (called "terroir") combined to offer a great variety among wine products, which are further increased by the fermentation process itself and by improvements attained with proper aging, sometimes for several decades or more. However, variety is not in itself a sought-after quality for large producers of table wine or more affordable wines, where consistency is more important for large and modern factory wines, and mass-market wine brands. Their producers will try to hide any hint of often-unremarkable "terroirs", or climatically under-performing harvest years, by:
- blending harvests of various years and vineyards;
- pasteurizing the grape juice in order to kill indigenous yeasts (to be replaced with "choice" cultivated yeasts); and
- using flavor additives. See also: List of grape varieties

Classification of wine

By vinification methods

List of grape varieties Wines may be classified by vinification methods. These include classifications such as sparkling, still, fortified, rosé, and blush. The colour of wine is not determined by the juice of the grape, which is almost always clear, but rather by the presence or absence of the grape skin during fermentation. Grapes with colored juice are known as teinturiers. Red wine is made from red (or black) grapes, but its red colour is bestowed by the skin being left in contact with the juice during fermentation. White wine can be made from any colour of grape as the skin is separated from the juice during fermentation. A white wine made from a very dark grape may appear pink or 'blush'. Rosé wines are a compromise between reds and whites: the skin of red grapes is left in for a short time during fermentation, or a small amount of red wine is blended with a white wine. Sparkling wines, such as champagne, are those with carbon dioxide, either from fermentation or added later. They vary from just a slight bubbliness to the classic Champagne. To have this effect, the wine is fermented twice, once in an open container to allow the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, and a second time in a sealed container, where the gas is caught and remains in the wine. In France, wines that gain their carbonation from the traditional method of bottle fermentation are called Méthode Traditionnelle. Other international denominations of sparkling wine include Sekt or Schaumwein (Germany), Cava (Spain), Spumante or Prosecco (Italy). In most countries except the United States, champagne is legally defined as sparkling wine originating from a region in France. Fortified wines are often sweeter, always more alcoholic wines that have had their fermentation process stopped by the addition of a spirit, such as brandy. They include:
- Marsala
- Madeira
- Sherry
- Port Brandy is a distilled wine. Grappa is a dry colorless brandy, distilled from fermented grape pomace, the pulpy residue of grapes, stems and seeds that were pressed for the winemaking process.

By taste

Wines may be also classified by their primary impression on the drinker's palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. Different grape varieties are associated with the aromas and tastes of different compounds. Wines may be described as 'dry' (meaning they are without sugar), off-dry, fruity, or sweet, for example. The sweetness of wines can be measured in brix, at harvest, but is in actuality determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation. Dry wine, for example, has only a tiny amount of residual sugar. Specific flavors may also be sensed, at least by an experienced taster, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules, such as esters, that a fully vinted wine contains.

White grapes

- Sauvignon Blanc: Gooseberry, asparagus.
- Sémillon: Honey, orange, lime.
- Chardonnay: Butter, melon, apple, pineapple, vanilla (if oaked, i.e. vinified in new oak aging barrels)
- Chenin Blanc: Wet wood, beeswax, honey, apple, almond.
- Riesling: Citrus fruits, petrol, honey.
- Gewürztraminer: Rose petals, lychee, spice.
- Viognier: Peach, pear, nutmeg, apricot.
- Marsanne: Almond, honeysuckle, marzipan.

Red grapes

- Gamay: Banana, bubble-gum, red fruits.
- Pinot Noir: Raspberry, cherry, violets, "farmyard" (with age).
- Zinfandel: Black cherry, mixed spices, mint.
- Shiraz (Syrah): Tobacco, pepper, blackberry.
- Grenache: Smoky, pepper, raspberry.
- Tempranillo: Vanilla, strawberry, tobacco.
- Sangiovese: Herbs, black cherry, leathery, earthy.
- Nebbiolo: Leather, stewed prunes, chocolate, liquorice.
- Merlot: Black cherry, plums, pepper, coffee.
- Cabernet Franc: Tobacco, green bell pepper, raspberry, new-mown grass.
- Cabernet Sauvignon: Blackcurrants, chocolate, mint, tobacco.
- Mourvèdre: Thyme, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, violet, blackberry.
- Petite Sirah: Earthy, black pepper, dark fruits.

By vintage

Wines may be classified by the year in which the grapes are harvested. "Vintage wines" are made from grapes of a single year's harvest, and are accordingly dated. These wines often improve in flavor as they age, and wine enthusiasts will occasionally save bottles of a favorite vintage wine for future consumption. For most types of wine, the best-quality grapes and the most care in wine-making are employed on vintage wines. They are therefore more expensive than non-vintage wines. Whilst vintage wines are generally made in a single batch so that each and every bottle will have a similar taste, climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines are only made in better-than-average years. Conversely, wines such as White Zinfandel, which don't age well, are made to be drunk immediately and are not labeled with a vintage year. There are exceptions though. French Champagne is typically non-vintage, but may not be "cheap", and can sometimes profit from aging.

Collectible wines

White Zinfandel At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most expensive of all foodstuffs, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Red wines, at least partly because of their ability to form more complex subtleties, are typically the most expensive. Such wines are often at their best years, or sometimes decades, after bottling. On the other hand, they may turn into vinegar, and before opening the bottle there may be no way of knowing this. Part of the expense associated with high-end wine comes from the number of bottles which must be discarded in order to produce a drinkable wine. Restaurants will often charge between two to five times the price of what a wine merchant may ask for an exceptional vintage. This is for a reason: diners will often return wines that have gone foul and not bear the expense. For restaurateurs, serving old vintages is a risk that is compensated through elevated prices. Some high-end wines are Veblen goods (for conspicuous consumption). Exclusive wines come from all the best winemaking regions of the world. Secondary markets for these wines have consequently developed, as well as specialised facilities for post-purchase storage for people to "invest" in wine. The most common wines purchased for investment are Bordeaux and Port. Many wine writers have decried the trend, as it has pushed up prices to the point that few people will consider drinking such valuable commodities, and consequently they are kept in bottles undrunk where they eventually deteriorate into a substance very much like red wine vinegar in taste (and desirability). Also investment in fine wine has attracted a number of fraudsters who have played on fine wine's exclusive image, and their clients' ignorance of this sector of the wine market. Typically, the scams work by charging excessively high prices on the wine, while representing that it is a sound investment unaffected by economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing. Some wines, produced to mark significant events in a country or region, can also become collectible because of labelling design. An example is the Mildara Rhine Riesling produced in 1973 to mark the opening of the Sydney Opera House. Instead of labels, the bottles (red, as well as white) had printing in gold on them, as seen in the illustration.
- For special types of wines, see Category:Wines.

Types of wines

Wine names

Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place of production. Generally speaking, Old World (European) wines are named for the place of production, with the grapes used often not appearing on the label. New World wines(those from everywhere except Europe) are generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their increased prominence on New World wine labels. Examples of recognized locales include:Napa Valley, Russian River Valley, Willamette Valley, Sonoma, Walla Walla, etc., Still, though, the grape variety is almost invariably present on the label. This is not the case with most European wines because tradition and legal restrictions enable any conoisseur to know exactly what variety of grape is in the bottle. Within Europe, a major exception to the no-grape rule is with German wines, for which it is not uncommon to find this information on the front label.

Regional wine names

The taste of a wine depends not only on the grape species and varietal blend, but also on the ground and climate (known as terroir) where it is cultivated. Historically, wines have been known by names reflecting their origin, and sometimes style: Bordeaux, Rioja, Mosel and Chianti are all legally defined names, reflecting the traditional wines produced in the named region. These naming conventions or "appellations" (as they are known in France) dictate not only where the grapes in a wine were grown, but also which grapes went into the wine and how they were vinified. The appellation system is strongest in the European Union, but a related system, the American Viticultural Area, restricts the use of certain regional labels in America, such as Napa Valley, Santa Barbara and Willamette Valley. The AVA designations do not restrict the type of grape used. New World wines are known primarily by their varietal content, and not by their region. The inconsistent application of historical European designations can be confusing. For example, in most of the world, wine labeled Champagne must be made from grapes grown in the Champagne region of France and fermented using certain method, based on the international trademark agreements included in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. However, in the United States (except Oregon), these and the following European appellations are allowed to be used as generic wine names:
- Asti
- Bordeaux
- Burgundy
- Chablis
- Champagne
- Chianti All of these are names of specific regions in Europe. While most countries restrict the use of these place names, there exists a legal definition called semi-generic in the United States that enables U.S. winemakers to apply these terms to their wines even though the product does not come from these specific places. Some suggest that this naming practice causes confusion, and thus, it is being protested by Europeans. Generally only less expensive, mass-produced wines (or vin ordinaire) make use of these place names as semi-generic wine names. Makers of American fine wines avoid these terms out of respect for their European counterparts. Thus, the finest sparkling wines from California will be labeled "sparkling wine", while some less expensive sparkling wines from California as well as states, such as Ohio and New York, may bear the name "Champagne". Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by trademark or copyright law, rather than a specific wine law or a patent on the actual varietal blend or process used to achieve it:
- Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec.
- Pinotage is a wine created by Professor Perold by cross-pollinating the two grape varieties of Pinot Noir and Cinsault. It is produced in South Africa and to a much lesser degree New Zealand.

Uses of wine

New Zealand Wine is a popular and important beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of European and Mediterranean-style cuisines, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Red, white and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are also known as light wines, because they only contain approximately 10-14% alcohol. The aperitif and dessert wines contain 14-20% alcohol, and are fortified to make them richer and sweeter than the light wines. Although there are many classes of dinner wines, they are all used under six specific classes, as follows:
- aperitif (or better known as "appetizer wines"): include dry sherry, Madeira, Vermouth, and other flavored wines, made to be consumed before eating a meal.
- red dinner wines: These wines are usually dry and go extremely well with such main-course dishes as red meats, spaghetti, and highly-seasoned foods. They should be served at a cool room temperature to bring out their aroma. The most popular red dinner wines are claret, Burgundy, Chianti, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Pink dinner wines (also called "rose wines"), a special class of red wines, can be served with almost any dish, but are considered best with cold meats, pork, and curries.

- white dinner wines: Usually either very dry or rather sweet, these wines should be served chilled, and go well with white meats, seafood, and fowl. They include Rhine wines, Chablis, sauterne, and wine made from different grape varieties such as Chardonnay and White Riesling.
- sparkling wines: Usually served at any meal with any course, these wines are most frequently served at banquets, formal dinners and weddings. The most common sparking wines are Champagne (white) and sparkling Burgundy (red).
- table wine: Table wine is not bubbly, although some have a very slight carbonation, the amount of which is not enough to disqualify them as table wines. According to U.S. standards of identity, table wines may have an alcohol content that is no higher than 14 percent. In Europe, light wine must be within 8.5 percent and 14 percent alcohol by volume. As such, unless a wine has more than 14 percent alcohol, or it has bubbles, it is a table wine or a light wine.
- dessert wines: Ranging from medium-sweet to sweet, these wines are classified under dessert wines only because they are sometimes served with desserts. Among these are port wine, sweet sherry, Tokay, and muscatel.
- cooking wines: Typically containing a significant quantity of salt, cooking wine is wine of such poor quality that it is unpalatable and intended for use only in cooking. The labels on certain bottles of wine suggest that they need to be set aside for an hour before drinking (ie. to "breathe"), while other wines are recommended to be drunk as soon as they are opened. 'Breathing' means allowing a wine to aerate before drinking. Generally, younger wines benefit from some aeration, while older wines do not. The word, "younger", refers to the first one third of a wine’s life, which varies from wine type to wine type and from wine to wine. For most white wines, "younger" means up to one to two years, while for red wines, they could mean as little as a few months, for a Beaujolais Nouveau, up to ten years for a hearty Barossa Shiraz. "Older", on the other hand, refers to the last one third of their lives. During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavours and makes them taste slightly smooth and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Wines that are older generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration. Breathing, however, does not benefit all wines, and should not therefore be taken to the extreme. In general, wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it may be aerated, if at all. It should then be tasted every 15 minutes until the wine is, according to individual preference, ready to drink. As a general rule, younger white wines normally require no more than 15-30 minutes of aeration while younger red wines should be no more than 30-60 minutes. If in doubt, it is better to err on the side of too little aeration than too much. Wine is also used in religious ceremonies in many cultures and the wine trade is of historical importance for many regions. The New Testament even states that Jesus' very first miracle was to turn water into wine (John 2:1-11).

Medical implications

The health effects of wine (and alcohol in general) are the subject of considerable ongoing debate and study. In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption was touched off in the 1990s by '60 Minutes', and other news reports on the French paradox. It now seems clear that regular consumption of up to 1-2 drinks a day (1 standard drink is approximately equal to 5 oz, or 125 ml, of 13% wine) does reduce mortality, due to 10%–40% lower risk of coronary heart disease, for those over the age of 35 or so (see Alcohol consumption and health). Originally, the effect was observed with red wine. Compounds, known as polyphenols, are found in larger amounts in red wine, and there is some evidence that these are especially beneficial. One particularly interesting polyphenol found in red wine is resveratrol, to which numerous beneficial effects have been attributed. With larger amounts, however, the effect is compensated by the increased rate of various alcohol-related diseases, primarily cancers of mouth, upper respiratory tract, and ultimately, cirrhosis of liver. Other studies have shown that similar beneficial effects can be obtained from drinking beer, and distilled spirits. It is unclear if this means that the only important ingredient is ethanol. Dean Edell, M.D., asserts that there are "differences of opinion about whether beer, wine, or liquor offers the quickest route to a longer life. Of ten major studies, one-third found this true for wine, one-third for beer, and one-third for liquor. Most researchers now believe that it is the alcohol in all of them that provides the magic, but they don’t rule out other components of alcoholic beverages." Sulfites (or sulphites) are chemicals that occur naturally in grapes and also are added to wine as a preservative. They can trigger a severe and life-threatening allergic reaction in a small percentage of consumers, primarily asthmatics. In the USA nearly all commercially produced wine, including that with no added sulfites, is required to state on the label "contains sulfites." In other countries they do not have to be declared on the label, leading to a common mistaken belief that only wine from the USA contains sulfites. Many consumers who have adverse reactions to wine, such as headaches or hangovers, blame added sulfites but are probably reacting instead to naturally-occurring histamines. The quantity of sulfites in a glass of wine is the same as a serving of dried apricots.

List of other wine-related subjects

Wine-based drinks

- List of cocktails with wine
- Brandy: A general term for distilled wine.
- Calimocho: A cheap alcoholic drink, comprising 50% red wine and 50% cola drink.
- Mulled wine (known in Scandinavia as Glögg): A red wine, combined with spices, and usually served hot.
- Sangria Spanish: A wine punch, comprising red wine, chopped fruits, sugar, and a small amount of brandy or other spirits.
- Spritzer: A tall, chilled drink, usually made of white wine and soda water.
- Wine cooler: An alcoholic beverage made from wine and fruit juice, often in combination with a carbonated beverage and sugar.
- Zurracapote: A popular Spanish alcoholic drink comprising mainly of red wine, spirit, fruit juice, sugar and cinnamon.
- Rebujito: A mixture of manzanilla wine, mixed with a soft drink like Sprite or 7 Up.
- Non-alcoholic wine

Wine-related objects

- Aging barrel: A barrel used to age wine or distilled spirits.
- Amphora: A type of ceramic vase, used for transporting and storing wine.
- Barrel: A hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of wood staves, used for fermenting and aging wine.
- Butt: An old English unit of wine casks, equivalent to about 477 litres or 126 US gallons (105 imperial gallons).
- Cork (material): Tissue material, harvested from the Cork oak tree, and very suitable as a material for bottle stoppers.
- Corkscrew: A tool, comprising a pointed metallic helix attached to a handle, for drawing stopping corks from bottles.
- Napkin is used around a bottleneck to stop drops running on bottle surface after pouring wine to glasses.
- Screwcap: An alternative to cork for sealing wine bottles, comprising a metal cap that screws onto threads on the neck of a bottle. Also called a "Stelvin".
- Wine bottle: A small container, with a neck that is narrower than the body, that allows long-term aging of wine when combined with a high-quality stopper, such as a cork.
- Wine collar: This accoutrement slips over the neck of a wine bottle and absorbs any drips that may run down the bottle after pouring - preventing stains to table cloths, counter tops or other surfaces.
- Wine cooler: An accessory, such as an ice bucket, for cooling wine.
- Wine label: The label on a wine bottle that must provide at least the minimum amount of information prescribed by law.
- Wine-press: A device, comprising two vats or receptacles, one for trodding and bruising grapes, and the other for collecting the juice.
- Wine stopper: An accessory, used to close leftover wine bottles because it is hard to put the original cork back into the bottleneck. See also Wine accessory.

Professions

- Cooper: Someone who makes wooden barrels, casks, and other similar wooden objects.
- Négociant: A wine merchant who assembles the produce of smaller growers and winemakers, and sells them under his own name.
- Sommelier: A waiter in a restaurant who specializes in wine.
- Vintner (also called "oenologist"): A winemaker or wine merchant.

Prominent personalities

- Abraham Izak Perold, Prof.
- Albert Seibel: A French hybridist (1844-1936) who made "Seibel grapes", that are hybrid crosses of European wine grapes (Vitis vinifera) with native North American grapes.
- Ausonius: Frequently cited by historians of winemaking, as his works give early evidence of large-scale viniculture in the now-famous wine country around his native Bordeaux, France.
- Dom Perignon: A Benedictine monk frequently credited with the invention of Champagne and for which, Dom Perignon, the famous brand of Champagne is named after.
- Georges Duboeuf: A prominent Beaujolais bottler who has won a number of awards for his wines.
- James Busby: Widely regarded as the "father" of the Australian wine industry, as he was the man who introduced vine to Australia from Spain and France.
- Nathaniel de Rothschild: Founder of the French wine-making branch of the Rothschild family.
- Philippe de Rothschild: A member of the Rothschild family, and one the most prolific wine producers in the world.
- Robert M. Parker, Jr.: An influential wine critic from the United States.
- Robert Mondavi: A leading vineyard operator whose technical improvements and marketing strategies brought worldwide recognition for the wines of the Napa Valley in California.
- Simon Van Der Stel
- Serena Sutcliffe, MW: The head of Sotheby's International Wine Department.
- Steven Spurrier
- Taittinger family: A French family that is a famous producer of champagne.
- William Charles Winshaw, Dr.

Vineyards and distributors

- Château Cheval Blanc: A vineyard in Saint-Émilion, France.
- Château Mouton Rothschild: Located at Bordeaux, France. The first estate to begin complete chateau bottling of the harvest.
- Château Pétrus: A vineyard of the Pomerol wine region in Bordeaux.
- Distell
- Douglas Green Bellingham (DGB)
- KWV (Koöperatiewe Winjnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afrika): The name of the company, formed in [1997], from the former winemakers cooperative in South Africa.
- Remick Ridge Vineyards: A California-based vineyard and winery, owned and operated by the Smothers Brothers.
- Royal Wine Company: Also known as "Kedem", is a U.S.-incorporated Kosher food manufacturing and distribution corporation, run by the Herzog family since 1848; holds exclusive United States distribution rights for several Israeli wines and spirits, and is especially known for the Baron Herzog Varietals line of wines.
- Marchesi Antinori
- Massaya: Wine from Lebanon

Films & TV

- Mondovino, USA/France 2004: A documentary film directed by American film maker, Jonathan Nossiter, explaining the impact of globalization on the various wine-producing regions.
- Sideways, 2004: A comedy/drama film, directed by Alexander Payne, with the tagline: In search of wine. In search of women. In search of themselves., in which wine, particularly Pinot Noir, plays a central role.
- Falcon Crest, USA 1981-1990: A CBS primetime soap opera about the fictional Falcon Crest winery and the family who owned it, set in the fictional Tuscany Valley of California. The series was very popular and a wine named Falcon Crest even went on the market.

External links

- [http://www.winefiles.org/ Wine information database]
- [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/series/wine/history.html A brief history in wine]
- [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/exhibits/online_exhibits/wine/wineintro.html Chateau Hajji Firuz]
- [http://www.languedoc-france.info/0414_wine.htm Wines of the Languedoc-Roussillon] History, Statistics, Appelations, Terroir
- [http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/wine.html World's Earliest Wine]
- [http://www.wineselecting.com/articles/ Wine selecting tips]
- [http://www.towson.edu/~gsarhang/Persian%20Wine%20Paper%201.doc Depiction of Wine in Persian Miniature]
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1590302,00.html End of the vine]

References

- Jancis Robinson, The Oxford Companion to Wine. ISBN 019866236X
- Ed McCarthy, Mary Ewing-Mulligan, Piero Antinori, Wine for Dummies. ISBN 0764525441
- Hugh Johnson, Hugh Johnson's Wine Companion. The Encyclopaedia of Wines, Vineyards and Winemakers, Mitchell Beazley 2003, 5th edition
- Stuart Pigott, A Grape by Grape Visual Guide to the Contemporary Wine World, (Mitchell Beazley)
- Dean Edell, M.D.. Eat, Drink and be Merry: America’s Doctor Tells You Why the Health Experts are Wrong. NY: HarperCollins, 1999, pp. 191-192. Category:Alcoholic beverages Category:Herbal & fungal drugs/medicines Category:Wine

Resources

als:Wein ko:와인 ja:ワイン simple:Wine th:ไวน์

Ireland

:This page is about the island of Ireland. For the state also called Ireland, see Republic of Ireland. :For an explanation of terms like Ulster, Northern Ireland, (Great) Britain and United Kingdom see British Isles (terminology) . British Isles (terminology)] Ireland (Irish: Éire) is the third-largest island in Europe. It lies in the Atlantic Ocean and it is composed of the Republic of Ireland (officially, Ireland), which covers five sixths of the island (south, east, west and north-west), and Northern Ireland; part of the United Kingdom, which covers the northeastern sixth of the island. The population of the island is approximately 5.8 million people; 4.1 million in the Republic of Ireland (1.6 million in Greater Dublin) and 1.7 million in Northern Ireland (0.6 million in Greater Belfast). Belfast 2003. Scotland, the Isle of Man and Wales are visible to the east]]
Geography
Wales with more details).]] A ring of coastal mountains surrounds low central plains. The highest peak is Carrauntuohill (Irish: Corrán Tuathail), which is 1041 m (3414 feet). The island is bisected by the River Shannon, at 259 km (161 mi) the longest river in Ireland or Britain. The island's lush vegetation, a product of its mild climate and frequent but soft rainfall, earns it the sobriquet "Emerald Isle". The island's area is 84,079 km² (32,477 mile²). Ireland is divided into four provinces: Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster. In Irish these are referred to as Cúige's ( Cúige - meaning fifths). Previously there were five provinces - Connacht, Munster, Ulster, Leinster and Meath, comprising the counties of Meath, Westmeath and Longford. These were further divided into 32 counties for administrative purposes. Six of the Ulster counties remain under British sovereignty as Northern Ireland following Ireland's partition in 1922 (the remaining 26 forming present-day Republic of Ireland); since the UK's 1974 reshuffle these county boundaries no longer exist in Northern Ireland for administrative purposes, although Fermanagh District Council is almost identical to the county. In the Republic, the county boundaries are still adhered to for local government, albeit with Tipperary and Dublin subdivided (some cities also have their own administrative regions). For election constituencies, some counties are merged or divided, but constitutionally the boundaries have to be observed. Across Ireland, the 32 counties are still used in sports and in some other cultural areas and retain a strong sense of local identity. Ireland's least arable land lies in the south-western and western counties. These areas are largely spectacularly mountainous and rocky, with beautiful green vistas.

Politics
Dublin Politically, Ireland is divided into:
- The Republic of Ireland, with its capital in Dublin. This state is often simply referred to internally and internationally as "Ireland" in English or "Éire" in Irish. Technically Ireland and Éire are the official names of the state while the "Republic of Ireland" is its official description.
- Northern Ireland is unofficially known as 'the North', and 'Ulster' (the province of Ulster also includes Donegal, Cavan, and Monaghan which are in the Republic). Northern Ireland is a region of the United Kingdom. Prior to the Government of Ireland Act 1920 the island had been a unified political entity within the United Kingdom (see United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) from 1801. From 1541 the Kingdom of Ireland was established by the King of England, though this realm did not cover the whole island till the early 17th century. Up to then, Ireland had been politically divided into a number of different Irish kingdoms (Leinster, Munster, Connacht, Mide, Ulster, and others). Contrary to some assertions, at no time did a national kingdom headed by an Ard Ri exist. In a number of respects, the island operates officially as a single entity, for example, in most kinds of sports. The major religions, the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of Ireland and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, are organised on an all-island basis. Some 92% of the population of the Republic of Ireland and about 44% of Northern Ireland is Roman Catholic. Some trade unions are also organised on an all-Irish basis and associated with the Irish Congress of Trades Unions (ICTU) in Dublin, while others in Northern Ireland are affiliated with the Trades Union Congress (TUC) in the United Kingdom - though such unions may organise in both parts of the island as well as in Britain. The island also has a shared culture across the divide in many other ways. Traditional Irish music, for example, though showing some variance in all geographical areas, is, broadly speaking, the same on both sides of the border. Irish and Scottish traditional music have many similarities. The Ireland Funds, an international fund-raising organisation, tries to help people on both sides find peace and reconciliation through community development, education, arts and culture. The island is often referred to as being part of the British Isles. However, some people, especially in Ireland, take exception to this name, which seems to suggest that both islands belong to Britain. For this reason, "Britain and Ireland" is commonly used as a more neutral alternative. Another suggestion, although much less used, is the Islands of the North Atlantic (IONA).
Flag of Ireland
There is no universally agreed flag that represents the island of Ireland. Historically a number of flags were used, including St. Patrick's cross, the flag sometimes used for the Kingdom of Ireland and which represented Ireland on the Union Jack after the Act of Union, a green flag with a harp (used by some radical nationalists in the 19th century and which is also the flag of Leinster), a blue flag with a harp used from the 18th century onwards by many nationalists (now the standard of the President of Ireland), and the Irish tricolour. However as the tricolour is the flag of the Republic of Ireland it is not used to represent the island of Ireland, given that the island also includes Northern Ireland. The Royal Standard also shows a version of an ancient Irish flag in one of its four quadrants. St Patrick's Saltire is used to represent the island of Ireland by the all-island Irish Rugby Football Union (IRFU). In contrast the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) uses the tricolour to represent the whole island.
History
Gaelic Athletic Association]] Ireland was mostly ice-covered and joined by land to Britain and Europe during the last ice age, has been inhabited for about 9,000 years. Stone age inhabitants arrived sometime after 8000 BC, with the culture progressing from Mesolithic to high Neolithic over the course of three or four millennia. The Bronze Age, which began around 2500 BC, saw the production of elaborate gold and bronze ornaments and weapons. The Iron Age in Ireland is associated with people now known as Celts. They are traditionally thought to have colonised Ireland in a series of waves between the 8th and 1st centuries BC, with the Gael, the last wave of Celts, conquering the island and dividing it into five or more kingdoms. Many scholars, however, now favour a view that emphasises cultural diffusion from overseas over significant colonisation.The Romans referred to Ireland as Hibernia. Ptolemy in AD 100 records Ireland's geography and tribes. Native accounts are confined to Irish poetry, myth, and archaeology. The exact relationship between Rome and the tribes of Hibernia is unclear; the only references are a few Roman writings. Tradition maintains that in AD 432, St. Patrick arrived on the island and, in the years that followed, worked to convert the Irish to Christianity. The druid tradition collapsed in the face of the spread of the new faith. Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin learning and Christian theology in the monasteries that flourished, preserving Latin learning during the Early Middle Ages. The arts of manuscript illumination, metalworking, and sculpture flourished and produced such treasures as the Book of Kells, ornate jewellery, and the many carved stone crosses that dot the island. This era was interrupted in the 9th century by 200 years of intermittent warfare with waves of Viking raiders who plundered monasteries and towns. Eventually they settled in Ireland, and established many towns, including the modern day cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Waterford. In 1172, King Henry II of England gained Irish lands by the granting of the 1155 Bull Laudibiliter to him by then English Pope Adrian IV, and from the 13th century, English law began to be introduced. English rule was largely limited to the area around Dublin, known as the Pale, and Waterford, but this began to expand in the 16th century with the final collapse of the Gaelic social and political superstructure at the end of the 17th century, as a result of the Tudor re-conquest of Ireland and English and Scottish Protestant colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland, which established English control over the whole island. After the the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Irish Catholics were barred from voting or attending the Irish Parliament. The new English Protestant ruling class was known as the Protestant Ascendancy In 1800 the Irish Parliament passed the Act of Union which, in 1801, merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland would remain within the United Kingdom, ruled directly by the UK Parliament in London. The 19th century saw the Great Famine of the 1840s in which at least 1 million Irish people died and over a million were forced to emigrate. The late 19th and early 20th century saw a vigorous but unsuccessful campaign for Irish home rule, followed by the eclipse of moderate nationalism by militant separatism. In 1922, following the Anglo-Irish War, twenty-six counties of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom as the Irish Free State. The remaining six, in the north-east, remained within the Union as Northern Ireland. Secession for the rest of Ireland led directly to the Civil War, as militant nationalists split into two factions and turned against one another.
History since partition

Irish Independence: The Irish Free State, Éire, Ireland
The Anglo-Irish Treaty was narrowly ratified by the Dáil in December 1921 but was rejected by a large minority, resulting in the Irish Civil War which lasted until 1923. In 1922, in the middle of this civil war, the Irish Free State came into being. For its first years the new state was governed by the victors of the Civil War. However in the 1930s Fianna Fáil, the party of the opponents of the treaty, were elected into government. The party introduced a new constitution in 1937 which renamed the state to simply "Éire or in the English language, Ireland" (preface to the Constitution). The state was neutral during World War II but offered some assistance to the Allies. In 1949 the state declared itself to be a republic and that henceforth it should be described as the Republic of Ireland. The state was plagued by poverty and emigration until the 1990s. That decade saw the beginning of unprecedented economic success, in a phenomenon known as the "Celtic Tiger". By the early 2000s, it had become one of the richest countries (in terms of GDP per capita) in the European Union, moving from being a net recipient to a net contributor and from a population with net emigration to one with net immigration.
Northern Ireland
From its creation in 1921 until 1972 Northern Ireland enjoyed limited self-government within the United Kingdom, with its own parliament and prime minister. However the Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland each voted almost entirely along sectarian lines, meaning that the government of Northern Ireland (elected by "first past the post") was always controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party. Consequently, Catholics could not participate in the government, which at times openly encouraged discrimination in housing and employment. Nationalist grievances at unionist discrimination within the state eventually led to large civil rights protests in 1960s, which the government suppressed heavy-handedly, most notably on "Bloody Sunday". It was during this period of civil unrest that the paramilitary Provisional IRA, who favoured the creation of a united Ireland, began its campaign against Unionist rule. Other groups, legal and illegal on the unionist side, and illegal on the nationalist side, began to participate in the violence and the period known as the "Troubles" began. Owing to the civil unrest the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed direct rule. In 1998, following a Provisional IRA cease-fire, the Good Friday Agreement was concluded and attempts began to be made to restore self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power sharing between the two communities. Violence has greatly decreased since the signing of the accord. In 2001 the armed police force in the north (which operated much like an army with armoured cars etc.), The Royal Ulster Constabulary (or RUC for short), was removed in place of the PSNI (Police Service of Northern Ireland) as a result of easing tensions. On July 28 2005, the Provisional IRA (PIRA) announced the end of its armed campaign and on September 25 2005 international weapons inspectors supervised the full disarmament of the PIRA.
Sport
Gaelic football and hurling are the most popular sports in Ireland. Along with Camogie, Ladies' Gaelic football, handball and rounders, they make up the national sports of Ireland, collectively known as Gaelic Games. All Gaelic games are governed by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), with the exception of Ladies' Gaelic Football, which is governed by a separate organisation. The GAA is organised on an all-Ireland basis with all 32 counties competing; traditionally, counties first compete within their province, in the provincial championships, and the winners then compete in the All-Ireland senior hurling or football championships. The headquarters of the GAA (and the main stadium) is located at the 83,000 capacity Croke Park in north Dublin. All major GAA games are played here, including the semi-finals and finals of the All-Ireland championships. All GAA players, even at the highest level, are amateurs and receive no wages. The Irish rugby team includes players from north and south, and the Irish Rugby Football Union governs the sport on both sides of the border. Consequently in international rugby, the Ireland team represents the whole island. The same is true of cricket. However, when Ireland was partitioned, organisation of football (soccer) in the Republic was transferred from the Belfast-based Irish Football Association (IFA) to the new Football Association of Ireland (FAI). The IFA remained in charge of the game in the six counties. (Consequently in International Association Football, the island has two teams: the Republic of Ireland, and Northern Ireland.) Northern Ireland qualified for the World Cup Soccer finals in 1958 (where they made it to the quarter finals), 1982 and 1986. The Republic of Ireland made it to the World Cup in 1990 (where they made it to the quarter finals), 1994 and 2002. Greyhound racing and horse racing are both popular in Ireland: greyhound stadiums are well attended and there are frequent horse race meetings. The Republic is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs. The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the central east of the Republic. Boxing is also an all-island sport governed by the Irish Amateur Boxing Association. Golf is an extremely popular sport in Ireland and Golfing Tourism is a major industry. The 2006 Ryder Cup will be held in the K Club in Co. Kildare, which is just outside Dublin. Prominent Irish sporting stars are: Sean Kelly (cycling), Stephen Roche (cycling), Brian O'Driscoll (rugby), Roy Keane (soccer), Damien Duff (soccer), D.J. Carey (hurling), Peter Canavan (GAA), Aidan O'Brien (racehorse trainer), Kieren Fallon (jockey), Eddie Jordan (F1), Padraig Harrington (golf), Sonia O'Sullivan (athlethics), Steve Collins (boxing) and Ken Doherty (snooker).
Culture

Literature and the arts
For a comparatively small country, Ireland has made a disproportionately large contribution to world literature in all its branches, mainly in English. Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century; Jonathan Swift, still often called the foremost satirist in the English language, was wildly popular in his day (Gulliver's Travels, A Modest Proposal, etc.) and remains so in modern times amongst both children and adults. In more recent times, Ireland has produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: George Bernard Shaw, William Butler Yeats, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney. Although not a Nobel Prize winner, James Joyce is widely considered one of the most significant writers of the 20th century. His 1922 novel Ulysses is sometimes cited as the greatest English-language novel of the 20th century and his life is celebrated annually on June 16th in Dublin as the Bloomsday celebrations. The early history of Irish visual art is generally considered to begin with early carvings found at sites such as Newgrange and is traced through Bronze age artifacts, particularly ornamental gold objects, and the religious carvings and illuminated manuscripts of the mediæval period. During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, a strong indigenous tradition of painting emerged, including such figures as John Butler Yeats, William Orpen, Jack Yeats and Louis le Brocquy.
Music and dance
The Irish tradition of folk music and dance is also widely known. In the middle years of the 20th century, as Irish society was attempting to modernise, traditional music tended to fall out of favour, especially in urban areas. During the 1960s, and inspired by the American folk music movement, there was a revival of interest in the Irish tradition. This revival was led by such groups as The Dubliners, The Chieftains, the Clancy Brothers and Sweeney's Men and individuals like Sean Ó Riada and Danny O'Flaherty. Irish and Scottish traditional music are similar. Before long, groups and musicians including Horslips, Van Morrison and even Thin Lizzy were incorporating elements of traditional music into a rock idiom to form a unique new sound. During the 1970s and 1980s, the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred, with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing as a matter of course. This trend can be seen more recently in the work of bands and individuals like U2, Clannad, The Cranberries, Van Morrison, Rory Gallagher, and The Pogues. Nevertheless, Irish music has shown an immense inflation of popularity with many attempting to return to their roots. There are also contemporary music groups that stick closer to a "traditional" sound, including Altan, Gaelic Storm, Lúnasa, and Solas. Others incorporate multiple cultures in a fusion of style, such as Afro Celt Sound System and Canadian Loreena McKennitt. Ireland has done well in the Eurovision Song Contest, being the most successful country in the competition with seven wins. This achievement evokes mixed feelings in many Irish people.
Demographics
Ireland has been inhabited for at least 9000 years, although little is known about the neolithic inhabitants of the island. Early historical and genealogical records note the existance of dozens of different peoples (Attacotti, Conmaicne, Éoganacht, Érainn, Soghain, to name but a few). Over the last 1000 years, there have been influences by the Vikings, who founded several ports, including Dublin, and Normans, with significant admixture to the gene pool. However the greater part of the Irish population descends from the original inhabitants of the island who came after the end of the Ice Age. Although for many years the Irish were believed to be of Celtic origin, recent genetic evidence shows that both the Irish and the Welsh (and to a lesser degree England and Scotland) have many genetic traits in common with the people of the Basque region. Some theorize that although Basque is certainly not a Celtic language, there may have been a Celto-Basque link while others postulate that the pre-Celtic population of the island may have had Basque origins. Both positions are difficult to prove, as the information is relatively new. Culturally however, Ireland is undeniably Celtic. Mingling of native Irish inhabitants with the latinate peoples of Spain, France and Rome during the height of the Roman Empire (and later following the expulsion of many Protestants from the predominantly Catholic Southern France, many of whom subsequently migrated to Ireland) gave rise to what some refer to as Franco-celts or Latin-celts. These people are charecterised particularly by very dark, black hair color, a trait that does not occur in "pure" Anglo-Saxon, and other significant genetic similarities to Southern Europeans. Franco-celts (or Latin-celts) are responsible in part, but not wholey, for the moderately high occurrence of black hair and other Southern European characteristics amongst the Irish population. Ireland's largest religious denomination is Roman Catholicism (about 70%), and most of the rest of the population adhere to one of the various Protestant denominations. The largest is the Church of Ireland. The Irish Muslim community is growing, mostly through increased immigration (see Islam in Ireland). The island also has a small Jewish community (See History of the Jews in Ireland), although this has declined somewhat in recent years. Since joining the EU in 2004, Polish people have been the largest source of immigrants from Eastern Europe, followed by other migrants from Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Latvia. Ireland has also had large numbers of Romanians entering the country since the 1990s. A high standard of living, high wages and EU citizenship attract many of the migrants from the newest of the European Union countries. Nigerians, Chinese and people from other African countries also make up a large proportion of migrants to Ireland.
Infrastructure

Transport

Air
Africa The three most important international airports in the Republic are Dublin Airport, Cork Airport and Shannon Airport. All provide extensive services to the UK, continental Europe and North America. The Irish national airline Aer Lingus and low-cost operator Ryanair are based at Dublin. Shannon is an important stopover on trans-Atlantic route for refuelling operations. There are several smaller regional airports in the Republic (Galway Airport, Kerry Airport, Knock International Airport, Sligo Airport, Waterford Airport) that mostly limit their services to Ireland and the United Kingdom. In Northern Ireland there are three main airports. Belfast International (Aldergrove) provides routes to Ireland and Great Britain, as well as many international services to Europe and recently Belfast-New York (Newark). Belfast City and City of Derry Airport mainly provide flights to Great Britain.
Rail
Great Britain The rail network in Ireland was developed by various private companies with the help of British Government funding throughout the late 19th century, reaching its greatest extent around the 1920s. The broad gauge of 1600 mm (5 ft 3 in) was eventually settled upon throughout the island, although there were narrow gauge (3 ft) railways also. Ireland also has one of the largest freight railways in Europe, operated by Bord na Móna. This company has a narrow gauge railway of 1200 miles. In Dublin a new Light Rail System, named Luas opened in 2004. Two lines serve the south and west suburbs as well as the north city centre. More lines are planned as well as an eventual upgrade to Metro. The scheme is being run by the RPA.
Road
RPA] As with Britain, motorists must drive on the left in Ireland, unfortunately tourists driving on the wrong side of the road cause serious [http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1145.html accidents] every year. The island of Ireland has an extensive road network, despite the low quality of many of these until recently. Northern Ireland has historically had better main roads, while the Republic of Ireland has an increasing motorway network, focused on Dublin and the east coast. Historically land owners developed most roads and later Turnpike Trusts collecting tolls so that as early as 1800 Ireland had a 10,000 mile [http://www.cie.ie/about_us/schools_and_enthusiasts.asp road network]. 1815 marked the inauguration of the first horsecar service from Clonmel to Thurles and Limerick. Nowadays the main bus companies are Bus Éireann in the South and Ulsterbus in the North, with Dublin Bus serving the needs of greater Dublin.
Energy
Dublin Bus For much of their existence electricity networks in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland were entirely separate. Both networks were designed and constructed independently, but are now connected with three interlinks and also connected by Northern Ireland Electricity (NIE) through Great Britain to mainland Europe. The Electricity Supply Board (ESB) in the Republic drove a rural electrification programme in the 1940s until the 1970s. The natural gas network is also now all-island, with a connection from Antrim to Scotland. Most of Ireland's gas comes from the Kinsale field. The Corrib Gas Field in Mayo has yet to come online, and is facing some localised opposition over the controversial decision to refine the gas onshore. Ireland, north and south has faced difficulties in providing continuous power at peak load. The situation in Northern Ireland is complicated by the issue of private companies not supplying NIE with enough power, while in the Republic, the ESB has failed to modernise its power stations. In the latter case, availability of power plants has averaged 66% recently, one of the worst such figures in Western Europe. There have been recent efforts in Ireland to use renewable energy such as wind energy with large wind farms being constructed in coastal counties such as Donegal, Mayo and Antrim. Recently what will be the world's largest offshore wind farm is being developed at